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We listen to a wide variety of things, for example; what someone says during a conversation, face to face or on the telephone; announcements giving information, for example, at an airport or railway station; the weather forecast on the radio; a play on the radio; music; someone else�s conversation (eavesdropping); a lecture; professional advice, for example, at the doctor�s, in the bank; instructions, for example, on how to use a photocopier or other machinery; directions; a taped dialogue in class (Lindsay and Knight, 2006: 45)

Listening is a psychological phenomenon, which takes place on a cognitive level inside people�s heads, and a social phenomenon, which develops interactively between people and the environment surrounding them. It considers listening as a complex process, which needs to be understood in order to teach it, and subsequently, evaluate it before integrating it with phonological aspects and with the skill of speaking. (Bueno, Madrid and McLaren, 2006:282).

Rivers (1966: 196) claimed, �Speaking does not of itself constitute communication unless what is said is comprehended by another person. Teaching the comprehension of spoken speech is therefore a primary importance of the communication aim is to be reached�.

However, Morley (1972: 7) notes, �perhaps an assumption that listening is a reflex, a little like breathing - listening seldom receives overt teaching attention in one�s native language � has marked the importance and complexity of listening with understanding in a nonnative language�.

According to Nunan, (2001: 23) Listening is a six-staged process, consisting of Hearing, Attending, Understanding, Remembering, Evaluating and Responding. These stages occur in sequence and rapid succession.

The firstone is Hearing and has to do with the response caused by sound waves stimulating the sensory receptors of the ear; hearing is the perception of sound, not necessarily paying attention, you must hear to listen, but you need not listen to hear.

For this, we have Attention. It refers to a selection that our brain focuses on. The brain screens stimuli and permits only a select few to come into focus.

The thirdstage is Understanding, which consists of analyzing the meaning of what we have heard and understanding symbols we have seen and heard. We must analyze the stimuli we have perceived. Symbolic stimuli are not only words, they can be sounds like applause or even sights, like a blue uniform that have symbolic meanings as well. To do this, we have to stay in the right context and understand the intended meaning. The meaning attached to these symbols is a function of our past associations and of the context in which the symbols occur for successful interpersonal communication: the listener must understand the intended meaning and the context assumed by the sender. 13 After following with the next stage, it is necessary to make a remark: as it has mentioned previously, the background knowledge is important and people have to take into account several points: general factual information, local factual information, socio-cultural knowledge and knowledge of context. With these factors, the information will be correctly received.

The next step, Remembering, is an important Listening process because it means that an individual, in addition to receiving and interpreting the message, has also added it to the mind�s storage bank, which means that the information will be remembered in our mind. But just as our attention is selective, so too is our memory, what is remembered may be quite different from what was originally heard or seen.

In the penultimate stage, Evaluating, the listener evaluates the message that has been received. It is at this point when active listeners weigh evidence, sort fact from opinion and determine the presence or absence of bias or prejudice in a message. The effective listener makes sure that he or she does not begin this activity too soon, as beginning this stage of the process before a message is completed results in no longer hearing and attending to the incoming message and, as a result, the Listening process ceases.

Finally, we have Responding, a stage in which, according to the response, the speaker checks if the message has been received correctly. This stage requires that the receiver complete the process through verbal or non verbal feedback, because the speaker has no other way to determine if a message has been received. Therefore, it is sometimes complicated as we do not have the opportunity to go back and check comprehension (Nunan: 2001, 23). Alwikncm Desember 31, 2015 Admin Bandung Indonesia

Theory of Listening

For this, we have Attention. It refers to a selection that our brain focuses on. The brain screens stimuli and permits only a select few to come into focus.

Speaking is one of the most difficult skills language learners have to face. In spite of this, it has traditionally been forced into the background while we, teachers of English, have spent all our classroom time trying to teach our students how to write, to read and sometimes even to listen in a L2 because grammar has a long written tradition (Bueno, Madrid and Mclaren, 2006: 321).

�speaking in a second or foreign language has often been viewed as the most demanding of the four skills� (Bailey and Savage 1994: 7). What specifically makes speaking in a second or foreign language difficult?

Brown (1994) labels speaking as the most challenging skill for students because of the set of features that characterize oral discourse:

� Contractions, vowel reductions and elision;

� The use of slang and idioms:

� Stress, rhythm and intonation;

� The need to interact with at least one other speaker.

Speaking is an �activity requiring the integration of many subsystems�all these factors combine to make speaking a second or foreign language a formidable task for language learners�yet for many people, speaking is seen as the central skill� (Bailey and Savage 1994: 6-7).

We speak for many reasons- to be sociable, because we want something, because we want other people to do something, to do something for someone else, to respond to someone else, to express our feelings or opinion about something, to exchange information, to refer to an action or event in the past, present, or future, the possibility of something happening, and so on (Lindsay and Knight, 2006: 58).

Harmer. J.also explains that:

When speaking, we construct words and phrases with individual sounds, and we also use pitch change, intonation, and stress to convey different meanings (2007: 29).

Speakers have a great range of expressive possibilities at their command. Apart from the actual words they use they can vary their intonation and stress which helps them to show which part of what they are saying is most important. By varying the pitch and intonation in their voice they can clearly convey their attitude to what they are saying, too; they can indicate interest or lack of it, for example, and they can show whether they wish to be taken seriously. At any point in a speech event speakers can rephrase what they are saying; they can speed up or slow down. This will often be done in response to the feedback they are getting from their listeners who will show through a variety of gestures, expressions and interruptions that they do not understand.

And in a face to face interaction the speaker can use a whole range of facial expressions, gestures and general body language to help to convey the message (Harmer, 2007: 53)

Alwikncm Desember 31, 2015 Admin Bandung Indonesia

Theory of Speaking

Brown (1994) labels speaking as the most challenging skill for students because of the set of features that characterize oral discourse:

� Contractions, vowel reductions and elision;

� The use of slang and idioms:

� Stress, rhythm and intonation;

� The need to interact with at least one other speaker.

Harmer. J.also explains that:

When speaking, we construct words and phrases with individual sounds, and we also use pitch change, intonation, and stress to convey different meanings (2007: 29).

And in a face to face interaction the speaker can use a whole range of facial expressions, gestures and general body language to help to convey the message (Harmer, 2007: 53)

Model atau metode pembelajaran dalam tujuan pencapaian

Pencapaian tujuan pembelajaran terkait dengan model pembelajaran.

� Tujuan kognitif dapat dirumuskan untuk pembelajaran kelompok besar, kelompok kecil/sedang, dan individual, secara tatap muka atau dengan memanfaatkan media.

� Tujuan afektif dapat dirumuskan untuk pembelajaran kelompok besar, kelompok kecil/sedang, dan individual, secara tatap muka atau dengan memanfaatkan media.

� Tujuan psikomotor dapat dirumuskan untuk pembelajaran kelompok besar, kelompok kecil/sedang, dan individual, dengan cara studi bebas langsung dengan sumber belajar.

Menurut Gerlach, dkk (1980) dan Raharjo (1984) media pembelajaran bukan semata-mata sebagai alat bantu bagi guru dalam proses pembelajaran, namun lebih ditekankan sebagai pembawa isi pembelajaran yang dibutuhkan siswa, dan dapat dimanfaatkan sendiri oleh siswa. Secara umum, fungsi/peran media pembelajaran antara lain untuk:

(1) mengatasi perbedaan pengalaman pribadi siswa;

(2) mengatasi keterbatasan ruang, waktu, daya indera;

(3) membuat konkrit konsep yang abstrak: misalnya, gambar segitiga merupakan bentuk konkrit dari konsep segitiga;

(4) memperjelas penyajian pesan, agar tidak terlalu verbalistis;

(5) melengkapi dan memperkaya informasi dalam pbm;

(6) mengganti objek yang berbahaya atau sukar didapat di dalam lingkungan belajar: misalnya, film atau cerita tentang harimau dipakai sebagai pengganti harimau;

(7) menampilkan objek yang terlalu besar: misalnya, geografi Pulau Jawa dapat ditampilkan dengan peta;

(8) menampilkan objek yang terlalu kecil dan tidak dapat diamati dengan mata telanjang: misalnya, bakteri dapat disajikan dalam bentuk gambar bakteri;

(9) mengamati gerakan yang terlalu cepat: misalnya, kecepatan 100 km/jam dapat diamati dengan menggunakan film slow-motion kecepatan 100 km/jam suatu kendaraan;

(10) memungkinkan siswa berinteraksi langsung dengan lingkungannya: misalnya, gambar sinar matahari yang masuk dalam sebuah ruangan memungkinkan siswa mencocokkan sinar matahari yang masuk dalam kelasnya;

(11) memungkinkan siswa berinteraksi langsung dengan masyarakat atau dengan keadaan alam sekitar; misalnya kunjungan ke museum, kebun binatang, dan sebagainya;

(12) memungkinkan keseragaman pengamatan dan persepsi pengalaman belajar siswa: misalnya gambar seekor harimau diterima secara sama oleh semua siswa tentang fisik seekor harimau;

(13) membangkitkan minat/motivasi belajar: drama (dalam bentuk audio/audio-visual) tentang manfaat belajar matematika dapat membangkitkan motivasi belajar matematika siswa;

(14) memberi kesan perhatian individual untuk seluruh anggota kelompok: misalnya gambar seorang anak perempuan bukan berarti hanya untuk anak-anak perempuan di kelas ;

(15) menyajikan isi pembelajaran secara konsisten dan dapat diulang atau disimpan menurut kebutuhan: model kerangka tubuh manusia dapat dimanfaatkan secara konsisten dalam pembelajaran anatomi;

(16) menyajikan isi pembelajaran secara serempak untuk mengatasi batasan ruang maupun waktu: misalnya program audio pembelajaran matematika bagi mahasiswa D-II SP yang disiarkan melalui RRI dapat menjangkau semua mahasiswanya di seluruh Indonesia dalam waktu yang sama;

(17) mengontrol arah maupun kecepatan belajar siswa: suatu media pembelajaran yang dikemas dalam format pita video dapat dimanfaatkan sendiri oleh siswa di luar jam belajarnya di sekolah;

(18) meningkatkan efektifitas dan efisiensi dalam penyampaian pesan (pelajaran);

(19) menambah variasi dalam penyajian dan atau penyampaian pesan (pelajaran).

(20) Memberi kesamaan/kesatuan dalam pengamatan terhadap sesuatu yang pada awal pengangamatan peserta didik berbeda-beda.

Selain itu masih ada fungsi yang lain menurut tipe atau karakteristik media Alwikncm Desember 31, 2015 Admin Bandung Indonesia

Fungsi dan Peran Media Pembelajaran